
Pierre Lévy *
Miguel Zapata Ros’s book on hybrid threats and chaos on the Internet is timely. Indeed, we are in the midst of a confrontation that is not only economic and military, but also cultural, pitting a Russian-Iranian-Chinese axis against a drifting West. Anti-Semitism is the common denominator of a strange ideological alliance between Russian imperialism, Islamism and Communism (and its “woke” Western avatars). Few people suspect that the revisionist powers and their internal allies in the West, including press agencies, the media and extremist parties, coordinate their propaganda, whether centrally or in a real time mimetic mode. In these circumstances, online manipulation and disinformation are strategic in nature, because public opinion and the morale of target populations – in other words, their minds – are at stake. But is the Internet really the main battleground for mind control? The answer is an unequivocal yes.
Less than a century after the invention of the first computers, more than sixty-five percent of the world’s population is connected to the Internet and the world’s memory is digitized. in Europe, the proportion of the population connected to the Internet amounts to 95%. Moreover 40% of Europeans and 50% of Americans and Canadians read the news through social media (I do mean social media, not the Internet in general). It is more than 50% everywhere under forty years old. For specific data on reading newspapers versus reading text online: 80% of those under thirty read news online according to the Pew Research Center data.
Compared to the 20th century, the public sphere has undergone a radical transformation. If a piece of information is found at one point of the network, it is everywhere. From static text on paper, we have moved on to ubiquitous hypertext, and then to a surrealist Architext gathering all symbols. A virtual memory has begun to grow, secreted by the living and the dead in billions, teeming with languages, music and images, full of dreams and fantasies, mixing science and lies. The new public sphere is multimedia, interactive, global, fractal, stigmergic and – from now on – mediated by artificial intelligence.
The new public sphere is global. Both the web and major social media like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Telegram, Reddit, etc. are international and multilingual. Machine translation has reached a point where we can now understand, with a few errors, what someone writes in another language. I would add that, in parallel to translation, the automatic synthesis of long texts is progressing, which adds to the porosity of the various cognitive and semantic bubbles.
The digital public sphere is fractal, that is, it is subdivided into subgroups, which in turn are subdivided into subgroups, and so on recursively, with all imaginable combinations and intersections. These subdivisions intersect with distinctions of platforms, languages, geographical areas, interests, political orientations, etc. Examples include Facebook or LinkedIn groups, Discord servers, You-tube or Telegram channels, Reddit communities, etc.
The new public sphere is stigmergic. While point-to-point message exchange still takes place, most social communication now takes place in a stigmergic manner. The notion of stigmergy is one of the keys to understanding the functioning of the digital public sphere. We distinguish traditionally three communication patterns: one-one, one-many and many-many. The one-one pattern corresponds to dialogue, the classic postal mail or the traditional telephone. The one-many scheme describes a central editor/transmitter sending his messages to many so-called « passive » receivers. This last scheme corresponds to the press, the recording industry, the radio and the television. The Internet represents a breakthrough because it allows all participants to transmit to a large number of receivers in a decentralized « many-to-many » networked scheme. This last description is nevertheless misleading. Indeed, if everyone transmits for everyone (which is the case), not everyone can listen to everyone. What happens in reality is that Internet users contribute to a common memory and in return become aware of the content of this memory through automated search and selection procedures. These are the famous algorithms of Google, (Page Rank), Facebook, Twitter, Amazon (recommendations), etc. Its Greek etymology explains the meaning of the word « stigmergy » quite well: marks (stigma) are left in the environment by the action or work (ergon) of members of a community, and these marks in turn guide their actions, and so on recursively. The classic case is that of ants leaving a trail of pheromones in their wake as they bring food back to the anthill. The smell of the pheromones incites other ants to follow their tracks to discover the booty and bring food back to the underground city by leaving a scented message on the ground as well.
It can be argued that any form of writing that is not precisely addressed is a form of stigmergic communication: traces are deposited for future reading and act as the external memory of a community. The phenomenon is old but it took a new extent since the turn of the century. Immersed in the new digital public sphere, we communicate through the oceanic mass of data that brings us together. Wikipedia’s encyclopedists and GitHub’s programmers collaborate through the same database. Unbeknownst to us, every link we create, every tag or hashtag placed on a piece of information, every act of rating or approval, every « like, » every request, every purchase, every comment, every share, all of these operations subtly modify the common memory, that is, the inextricable magma of relationships between data. Our online behavior emits a continuous flow of messages and clues that transform the structure of memory and contribute to directing the attention and activity of our fellow internet users. In an endless loop, we deposit in the virtual environment some electronic pheromones which determine the action of other Internet users and train the formal neurons of artificial intelligences (AI).
The new public sphere is mediated by artificial intelligence. The biological brain abstracts the details of actual experiences into schemas of interactions, or concepts, encoded by patterns of neural circuits. In the same way, the neural models of AI condense the countless data of digital memory. They compress the actual data into patterns and patterns of patterns. Conditioned by their training, the algorithms can then recognize and reproduce data corresponding to the learned patterns. But because they have abstracted structures rather than recorded everything, they are able to conceptualize correctly some forms (of image, text, music, code…) that they have never encountered and to produce an infinity of new symbolic arrangements. This is why we speak about generative artificial intelligence.
Digital memory is detached from its place of origin and reception, pooled, waiting to be read, suspended in the « clouds » of the Internet, embedded in software. This mass of data is now virtualized by neural models. And the patterns hidden in the myriad layers and connections of electronic brains rain down novel symbolic objects and, among them, torrents of fakes and disinformation.
We should get used to it: the polis has moved into the great global database of the Internet. As a result, power struggles – all power struggles, be they economic, political or cultural – are replayed and complicated in the new digital space. On the slippery terrain of social media, the opposing camps have their armies of trolls coordinated in real time, equipped with the latest bots, informed by automatic data analysis and augmented by machine learning. In the raging worldwide civil war, with domestic and foreign politics inextricably intertwined, the new mercenaries are the influencers.
But all these novelties do not invalidate the classic rules of propaganda, which are still valid today: continuous repetition, simplicity of the catchwords, memorable images, emotional provocation and identity resonance. No one has forgotten Machiavelli’s wise advice on how to get the enemy to destroy himself: « Secret warfare consists of taking the confidence of a divided city, mediating between the two parties until they come to arms: and when the sword is finally drawn, giving carefully measured help to the weaker party, as much with the aim of making the war last and letting them be consumed by each other, as to guard against revealing one’s intention of oppressing and subduing them both equally, by a too massive help. If you follow this course carefully, you will almost always reach your goal. » [in Discourse on the first decade of Titus-Livius my translation].
With our heads down on our smartphones, we spin in a loop the stereotypes that reinforce our fragmented identities and our short memories under the snide gaze of intoxication experts, subsidized communicators, marketing specialists and geopolitical agents of influence…
Despite all of the above, the public sphere of the 21st century is more open than that of the 20th century: citizens in democratic countries enjoy a great deal of freedom of expression and can choose their sources of information from a wide range of thematic specializations, languages and political orientations. This freedom of expression and information, the new distributed power of data creation and analysis, not to mention the possibilities of social coordination offered by the new medium, all represent emancipatory potential. But only a true education to critical thinking in the new communication environment will actualize this potential of renewed citizenship. To set the record straight, a BBC study recently showed that half of young people aged 12 to 16 believe news shared on social media without checking them. And we know from experience that children are not the only gullible subjects. Ideally, the new critical thinking education should teach future citizens to organize themselves as small, autonomous intelligence agencies that prioritize their interests, carefully select diverse sources, analyze data based on explicit hypotheses, and maintain a relevant classification of their personal digital memory. They must learn to discern data sources in terms of organizing categories, dominant narratives, and agendas. The basic journalistic reflex of cross-referencing sources identified in this way will be instilled. Finally, students should be trained in collective stigmergic intelligence and collaborative learning. For teachers, students, journalists and citizens, Miguel Zapata Ross’s book on hybrid threats is a great resource at the service of a renewed critical thinking.
References. –
Lévy, P. (2025) Symbolism, Digital Culture and Artificial Intelligence. RED. Revista de Educación a Distancia.81. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/630211
Marsh, L., & Onof, C. (2008). Stigmergic epistemology, stigmergic cognition. Cognitive Systems Research, 9(1-2), 136-149.
*Prologue to the books
Amenazas Híbridas – Cómo crear el caos en línea
Amenazas Híbridas – El nuevo tipo de guerra de la Sociedad Digital
Author: Miguel Zapata Ros